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统计学
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抽样
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推断
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概率论
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计数
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</a>
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概率概念
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分布
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</span>
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</a>
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贝叶斯
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</span>
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</a>
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信息论
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</span>
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机器学习
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</span>
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<span class="md-nav__icon md-icon"></span>
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机器学习
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经典机器学习
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梯度机器学习
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</span>
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</a>
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深度学习
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</span>
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</a>
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强化学习
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</span>
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</a>
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分布式深度学习
|
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</span>
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|
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|
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|
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</a>
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计算语言学
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<span class="md-nav__icon md-icon"></span>
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计算语言学
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语言学基础
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</a>
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嵌入与序列模型
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</span>
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</a>
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Transformer 与语言模型
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</span>
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|
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</a>
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<span class="md-ellipsis">
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高级文本生成
|
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|
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|
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|
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</span>
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|
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|
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|
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</a>
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计算机视觉
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计算机视觉
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图像基础
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</span>
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</a>
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目标检测与分割
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多模态学习
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多模态学习
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多模态表征
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</span>
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</a>
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统一多模态架构
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</span>
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自主系统
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感知
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视觉-语言-动作模型
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自动驾驶
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</a>
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太空与极端机器人
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</span>
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图神经网络
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3D 图网络
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生产级软件工程
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ML 系统设计
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应用 AI
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药物发现
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|
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|
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|
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<li class="md-nav__item">
|
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<a href="../../chapter%2019%3A%20applied%20AI/04.%20agentic%20systems/" class="md-nav__link">
|
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<span class="md-ellipsis">
|
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智能体系统
|
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|
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|
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|
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</span>
|
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|
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|
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|
||
</a>
|
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</li>
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<li class="md-nav__item">
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<span class="md-ellipsis">
|
||
|
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|
||
医疗健康
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
</span>
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
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</a>
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</ul>
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</nav>
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<li class="md-nav__item md-nav__item--nested">
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前沿 AI
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<span class="md-nav__icon md-icon"></span>
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前沿 AI
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<a href="../../chapter%2020%3A%20bleeding%20edge%20AI/01.%20quantum%20machine%20learning/" class="md-nav__link">
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量子机器学习
|
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|
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|
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|
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</span>
|
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|
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|
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|
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</a>
|
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神经形态计算
|
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</span>
|
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|
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太空数据中心
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</span>
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</a>
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<span class="md-ellipsis">
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去中心化 AI
|
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|
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|
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|
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</span>
|
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|
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|
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|
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</a>
|
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</li>
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<a href="../../chapter%2020%3A%20bleeding%20edge%20AI/05.%20brain%20machine%20interfaces/" class="md-nav__link">
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<span class="md-ellipsis">
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脑机接口
|
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|
||
|
||
|
||
</span>
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
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</a>
|
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</li>
|
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|
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</ul>
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</nav>
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</li>
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</ul>
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</nav>
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</div>
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</div>
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</div>
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<div class="md-sidebar md-sidebar--secondary" data-md-component="sidebar" data-md-type="toc" >
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<div class="md-sidebar__scrollwrap">
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<div class="md-sidebar__inner">
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<nav class="md-nav md-nav--secondary" aria-label="目录">
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目录
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<ul class="md-nav__list" data-md-component="toc" data-md-scrollfix>
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<li class="md-nav__item">
|
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<a href="#_2" class="md-nav__link">
|
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<span class="md-ellipsis">
|
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||
操作系统做什么
|
||
|
||
</span>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
</li>
|
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|
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<li class="md-nav__item">
|
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<a href="#_3" class="md-nav__link">
|
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<span class="md-ellipsis">
|
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进程
|
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|
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</span>
|
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</a>
|
||
|
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</li>
|
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|
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<li class="md-nav__item">
|
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<a href="#_4" class="md-nav__link">
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<span class="md-ellipsis">
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线程
|
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|
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</span>
|
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</a>
|
||
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</li>
|
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|
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<li class="md-nav__item">
|
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<a href="#cpu" class="md-nav__link">
|
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<span class="md-ellipsis">
|
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CPU调度
|
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|
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</span>
|
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</a>
|
||
|
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</li>
|
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|
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<li class="md-nav__item">
|
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<a href="#_5" class="md-nav__link">
|
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<span class="md-ellipsis">
|
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|
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内存管理
|
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|
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</span>
|
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</a>
|
||
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</li>
|
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|
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<li class="md-nav__item">
|
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<a href="#_6" class="md-nav__link">
|
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<span class="md-ellipsis">
|
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文件系统
|
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|
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</span>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
</li>
|
||
|
||
<li class="md-nav__item">
|
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<a href="#_7" class="md-nav__link">
|
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<span class="md-ellipsis">
|
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|
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系统调用与内核模式
|
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|
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</span>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
</li>
|
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|
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<li class="md-nav__item">
|
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<a href="#_8" class="md-nav__link">
|
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<span class="md-ellipsis">
|
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|
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网络基础
|
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|
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</span>
|
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</a>
|
||
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||
</li>
|
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|
||
<li class="md-nav__item">
|
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<a href="#_9" class="md-nav__link">
|
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<span class="md-ellipsis">
|
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|
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虚拟化与容器
|
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|
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</span>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
</li>
|
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|
||
<li class="md-nav__item">
|
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<a href="#_10" class="md-nav__link">
|
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<span class="md-ellipsis">
|
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|
||
安全基础
|
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|
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</span>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
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</li>
|
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|
||
<li class="md-nav__item">
|
||
<a href="#colab" class="md-nav__link">
|
||
<span class="md-ellipsis">
|
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|
||
编程任务（使用CoLab或笔记本）
|
||
|
||
</span>
|
||
</a>
|
||
|
||
</li>
|
||
|
||
</ul>
|
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|
||
</nav>
|
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</div>
|
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</div>
|
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</div>
|
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|
||
|
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|
||
<div class="md-content" data-md-component="content">
|
||
|
||
<article class="md-content__inner md-typeset">
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
<h1 id="_1">操作系统<a class="headerlink" href="#_1" title="Permanent link">¶</a></h1>
|
||
<p><em>操作系统是硬件与应用程序之间的软件层，负责管理资源、提供抽象并实施隔离。本文涵盖操作系统的功能、进程、线程、CPU调度、内存管理、文件系统和系统调用。</em></p>
|
||
<ul>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p>没有操作系统的计算机就像一个没有厨师的厨房：食材（硬件）都在那里，但没有人协调谁使用炉灶、餐具放在哪里、或者如何防止两个人同时抓同一把刀。<strong>OS</strong>就是那个协调者。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p>对于ML从业者，操作系统的概念解释了：为什么 <code>nvidia-smi</code> 显示每个进程的GPU内存使用量、为什么训练因"内存不足"而崩溃、为什么 <code>fork()</code> 会复制你的Python进程、以及为什么Docker容器提供隔离环境。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
<h2 id="_2">操作系统做什么<a class="headerlink" href="#_2" title="Permanent link">¶</a></h2>
|
||
<ul>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p>OS有三个核心职责：</p>
|
||
<ul>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><strong>抽象</strong>：将硬件复杂性隐藏在简洁的接口之后。程序读写"文件"而无需知道底层存储是SSD、HDD还是网络驱动器。它们分配"内存"而无需管理物理RAM芯片。它们在"CPU"上运行而无需担心中断和缓存一致性。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><strong>资源管理</strong>：多个程序共享CPU、内存、磁盘和网络。OS决定谁获得什么资源、何时获得、获得多久。公平高效的分配策略保持系统的响应性。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><strong>隔离与保护</strong>：程序之间不得相互干扰。浏览器中的Bug不应导致内核崩溃。恶意程序不应读取另一个程序的密码。OS利用硬件支持（特权级、虚拟内存）强制实施边界。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
<h2 id="_3">进程<a class="headerlink" href="#_3" title="Permanent link">¶</a></h2>
|
||
<ul>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><strong>进程</strong>是正在运行的程序。它是OS的基本工作单元。每个进程都有：</p>
|
||
<ul>
|
||
<li><strong>代码</strong>（程序指令，只读）。</li>
|
||
<li><strong>数据</strong>（全局变量，堆分配）。</li>
|
||
<li><strong>堆栈</strong>（函数调用帧，局部变量）。</li>
|
||
<li><strong>状态</strong>（寄存器值、程序计数器、打开的文件等）。</li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><strong>进程控制块（PCB）</strong>是OS用于跟踪进程的数据结构。它存储进程ID（PID）、状态、程序计数器、寄存器内容、内存映射、打开的文件描述符和调度优先级。当OS从一个进程切换到另一个进程时，它将当前进程的状态保存到其PCB中，并加载下一个进程的状态。这就是<strong>上下文切换</strong>。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p>上下文切换代价高昂：保存和恢复寄存器、刷新缓存、使TLB项失效需要微秒级时间。在一个运行数千个进程的系统中，开销可能很大。这就是为什么每进程每请求的服务器架构（如老式Apache）被基于线程或事件驱动的架构取代。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p>Unix中的<strong>进程创建</strong>使用 <code>fork()</code> 和 <code>exec()</code>：</p>
|
||
<ul>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><code>fork()</code> 创建当前进程的一个<strong>副本</strong>。子进程获得父进程内存、文件描述符和状态的一份副本。两个进程从同一点继续执行，但 <code>fork()</code> 在子进程中返回0，在父进程中返回子进程的PID。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><code>exec()</code> 用新程序替换当前进程的代码。在 <code>fork()</code> 之后，子进程通常调用 <code>exec()</code> 来运行一个不同的程序。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p>这种先fork后exec的模型很优雅：创建新进程（fork）和加载新程序（exec）是独立的操作，可以各自定制。在fork和exec之间，子进程可以重定向I/O、更改环境变量或降低权限。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
<p><img alt="进程状态转换：新建→就绪→运行→阻塞/终止，包含抢占和I/O等待" src="../../images/process_states.svg" /></p>
|
||
<ul>
|
||
<li><strong>进程状态</strong>：一个进程处于以下几种状态之一：<ul>
|
||
<li><strong>运行</strong>：当前在CPU核心上执行。</li>
|
||
<li><strong>就绪</strong>：等待CPU核心（可运行但尚未被调度）。</li>
|
||
<li><strong>阻塞</strong>（等待）：无法继续，直到某个事件发生（I/O完成、锁获取、定时器到期）。</li>
|
||
<li><strong>终止</strong>：执行完毕，等待父进程收集其退出状态。</li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
<h2 id="_4">线程<a class="headerlink" href="#_4" title="Permanent link">¶</a></h2>
|
||
<ul>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><strong>线程</strong>是进程内的轻量级执行单元。进程内的所有线程共享相同的代码、数据和堆，但每个线程有自己的堆栈和寄存器状态。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p>与多个进程相比的优势：线程共享内存，因此它们之间的通信很快（只需读写共享变量）。进程需要进程间通信（管道、套接字、共享内存映射），这更慢且更复杂。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p>劣势：共享内存是危险的。两个线程同时写入同一变量会导致<strong>竞态条件</strong>（结果取决于哪个线程先运行）。这引导我们进入同步问题，在文件4中介绍。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><strong>内核线程</strong>由OS调度器管理。每个线程独立地被调度到CPU核心上。创建和切换内核线程涉及系统调用，开销与进程上下文切换类似（但更小）。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><strong>用户线程</strong>（绿色线程）由用户空间的运行时库管理，对OS不可见。创建和切换它们的成本更低（无需系统调用），但一个用户线程的阻塞操作会阻塞进程中的所有线程（因为OS只看到一个内核线程）。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p>现代系统使用<strong>混合模型</strong>：许多用户线程映射到较少数量的内核线程上（M:N线程）。Go的goroutine和Erlang的进程是由语言运行时调度到OS线程上的用户级线程。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><strong>线程池</strong>预先创建固定数量的线程，等待任务。当任务到达时，分配给一个空闲线程。这避免了为每个任务创建和销毁线程的开销。Web服务器、数据库引擎和ML推理服务器都使用线程池。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
<h2 id="cpu">CPU调度<a class="headerlink" href="#cpu" title="Permanent link">¶</a></h2>
|
||
<ul>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><strong>调度器</strong>决定每个时刻哪个进程/线程在哪个CPU核心上运行。目标是：最大化CPU利用率、最小化响应时间（对交互式任务）、最大化吞吐量（对批处理任务）、并确保公平性。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><strong>先来先服务（FCFS）</strong>：进程按到达顺序运行。简单但存在<strong>护航效应</strong>：一个长时间运行的进程阻塞了后面所有较短的进程。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><strong>最短作业优先（SJF）</strong>：运行最短的进程优先。可证明最小化平均等待时间，但需要预先知道作业长度（通常不可能）。其抢占式版本<strong>最短剩余时间优先（SRTF）</strong>，如果出现更短的作业则中断正在运行的作业。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><strong>轮转（RR）</strong>：每个进程获得一个固定的<strong>时间片</strong>（如10 ms），然后被抢占并移到队列末尾。公平且响应性好，但时间片大小很重要：太小会导致过多上下文切换，太大则会退化为FCFS。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><strong>优先级调度</strong>：每个进程有一个优先级。高优先级进程先运行。危险是<strong>饥饿</strong>：如果高优先级进程源源不断到来，低优先级进程可能永远无法运行。<strong>老化</strong>解决这个问题：进程等待时间越长，其优先级就越高。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><strong>多级反馈队列（MLFQ）</strong>：具有不同优先级和时间片的多个队列。新进程从最高优先级队列（短时间片）开始。如果一个进程用完其时间片（CPU密集型），它被降到较低优先级队列（较长时间片）。交互式进程自然停留在高优先级队列中（它们在使用完时间片之前就因I/O阻塞了）。这可以适应工作负载，而无需预先了解作业类型。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><strong>完全公平调度器（CFS）</strong>：Linux调度器。它维护一棵红黑树（平衡二叉搜索树），进程按"虚拟运行时间"（它们已经消耗的CPU时间）排序。具有最小虚拟运行时间的进程接下来运行。这确保了随着时间的推移，每个进程获得其公平份额。CFS每次调度决策运行时间为 <span class="arithmatex">\(O(\log n)\)</span>。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
<h2 id="_5">内存管理<a class="headerlink" href="#_5" title="Permanent link">¶</a></h2>
|
||
<ul>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p>OS管理物理RAM，将其分配给进程并在不再需要时回收。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><strong>分页</strong>（来自文件2）将虚拟内存划分为固定大小的页，物理内存划分为帧。页表将页映射到帧。分页消除了外部碎片（分配之间的浪费空间），因为所有页面大小相同。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><strong>请求分页</strong>仅在首次访问时将页加载到RAM中（而不是在进程启动时）。这节省了内存：一个拥有1 GB代码的程序在典型运行中可能只使用50 MB。其余部分从未被加载。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p>当RAM满且需要新页时，OS必须<strong>换出</strong>一个现有页面。<strong>页面置换</strong>算法（LRU、FIFO、时钟，来自文件2）决定换出哪个页面。好的置换最小化缺页次数；坏的置换导致系统颠簸。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><strong>分段</strong>将内存划分为可变大小的段（代码、数据、栈、堆），每个段有自己的基地址和长度。分段提供逻辑组织，而分页提供物理管理。现代系统最小限度地使用分段（主要用于保护），并依赖分页进行内存管理。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><strong>堆</strong>是动态分配内存所在的地方（C中的<code>malloc</code>/<code>free</code>，Java中的<code>new</code>，Python中隐式管理）。OS向进程提供大块内存，<strong>内存分配器</strong>（如 <code>glibc malloc</code>、<code>jemalloc</code>、<code>tcmalloc</code>）将这些大块细分为更小的分配。分配器设计影响性能：碎片浪费空间，线程间的争用浪费时间。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
<h2 id="_6">文件系统<a class="headerlink" href="#_6" title="Permanent link">¶</a></h2>
|
||
<ul>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><strong>文件系统</strong>将持久存储（SSD、HDD）上的数据组织为命名的文件和目录层次结构。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><strong>inode</strong>（索引节点）存储文件的元数据：大小、所有权、权限、时间戳以及指向磁盘上数据块的指针。文件名存储在目录中，目录将名称映射到inode编号。这种分离意味着一个文件可以有多个名称（<strong>硬链接</strong>）指向同一个inode。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><strong>FAT</strong>（文件分配表）：一种简单的文件系统，用于USB驱动器和SD卡。一个表将每个簇（块）映射到文件中的下一个簇，形成一个链表。简单但不好支持权限、日志记录或大文件。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><strong>ext4</strong>：默认的Linux文件系统。使用带有直接、间接、二级间接和三级间接块指针的inode来处理任何大小的文件。支持<strong>区段</strong>（块的连续范围）以高效处理大文件。最大文件大小：16 TB，最大分区：1 EB。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><strong>日志记录</strong>防止因崩溃而损坏。在修改文件系统结构之前，更改被写入<strong>日志</strong>（journal）。如果系统在操作中间崩溃，重启时会重放日志以完成或撤销该操作。没有日志记录，写入期间的崩溃可能使文件系统处于不一致状态（文件的数据块已更新但其inode未更新，反之亦然）。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><strong>基于B树的文件系统</strong>（Btrfs、ZFS）使用B树（平衡搜索树）来组织数据和元数据，实现高效搜索、写时复制快照以及用于数据完整性的内置校验和。这些与数据库索引中使用的B树相同。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
<h2 id="_7">系统调用与内核模式<a class="headerlink" href="#_7" title="Permanent link">¶</a></h2>
|
||
<ul>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><strong>系统调用</strong>是用户程序和OS内核之间的接口。当程序需要做一些特权操作（读取文件、分配内存、创建进程、发送网络数据包）时，它会进行系统调用。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p>CPU在两种模式下运行：</p>
|
||
<ul>
|
||
<li><strong>用户模式</strong>：受限制。程序可以执行自己的代码并访问自己的内存，但不能直接访问硬件、其他进程的内存或OS数据结构。</li>
|
||
<li><strong>内核模式</strong>：不受限制。OS内核可以访问所有硬件和内存。系统调用是从用户模式到内核模式的受控通道。</li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p>当程序调用 <code>read()</code> 时，发生以下过程：</p>
|
||
<ol>
|
||
<li>程序将参数放入寄存器并触发<strong>陷阱</strong>（一种软件中断）。</li>
|
||
<li>CPU切换到内核模式并跳转到系统调用处理程序。</li>
|
||
<li>内核验证参数，执行I/O操作，将数据复制到用户的缓冲区。</li>
|
||
<li>内核切换回用户模式并返回结果。</li>
|
||
</ol>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p>常见系统调用：<code>open</code>、<code>read</code>、<code>write</code>、<code>close</code>（文件），<code>fork</code>、<code>exec</code>、<code>wait</code>、<code>exit</code>（进程），<code>mmap</code>、<code>brk</code>（内存），<code>socket</code>、<code>bind</code>、<code>listen</code>、<code>accept</code>（网络）。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><strong>中断</strong>是迫使CPU暂时停止当前操作并运行中断处理程序（在内核中）的硬件信号。一次键盘按键、一个网络数据包到达或一个定时器滴答都会产生中断。定时器中断特别重要：它使OS能够抢占正在运行的进程并切换到另一个（抢占式多任务）。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
<h2 id="_8">网络基础<a class="headerlink" href="#_8" title="Permanent link">¶</a></h2>
|
||
<ul>
|
||
<li>网络栈是OS的一个子系统，实现机器之间的通信。理解它解释了分布式训练如何同步梯度、模型服务如何处理请求以及为什么延迟很重要。</li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
<p><img alt="TCP/IP栈：应用层、传输层、网络层和链路层，每层添加头部" src="../../images/tcp_ip_layers.svg" /></p>
|
||
<ul>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><strong>TCP/IP模型</strong>将网络组织为分层结构，每层为上层提供抽象：</p>
|
||
<ul>
|
||
<li><strong>链路层</strong>：处理单个物理链路上的通信（以太网、Wi-Fi）。处理MAC地址和帧。</li>
|
||
<li><strong>网络层（IP）</strong>：将数据包跨多个网络从源路由到目标。每台机器有一个<strong>IP地址</strong>（例如 IPv4 的 192.168.1.1 或 128位的IPv6地址）。路由器基于目标IP逐跳转发数据包。</li>
|
||
<li><strong>传输层（TCP/UDP）</strong>：提供应用程序之间的端到端通信。</li>
|
||
<li><strong>应用层</strong>：HTTP、DNS、gRPC等协议，应用程序直接使用。</li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><strong>TCP</strong>（传输控制协议）提供可靠、有序的交付。它建立一个连接（三次握手：SYN、SYN-ACK、ACK），保证所有数据按序到达（使用序列号和确认），重传丢失的数据包，并控制发送速率以避免网络过载（<strong>拥塞控制</strong>）。代价是延迟：握手增加了一个往返时间，重传增加了延迟。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><strong>UDP</strong>（用户数据报协议）提供不可靠、无序的交付。无需握手、无需重传、无顺序保证。延迟远低于TCP。用于速度比可靠性更重要的场景：视频流、在线游戏、DNS查询。在ML中，一些梯度同步协议使用基于UDP的RDMA以获得更低延迟。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><strong>套接字</strong>是用于网络通信的OS API。一个<strong>套接字</strong>是由（IP地址，端口号）标识的端点。服务器创建一个套接字，将其绑定到一个端口（例如HTTP的80），监听连接，并接受它们。客户端创建一个套接字并连接到服务器的地址:端口。然后通过套接字像文件一样读写数据。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><strong>DNS</strong>（域名系统）将人类可读的名称（google.com）翻译为IP地址（142.250.80.46）。它是一个分布式的、层次化的数据库：你的机器询问本地解析器，后者询问根服务器，根服务器委托给每个域的权威服务器。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><strong>HTTP</strong>（超文本传输协议）是Web的请求-响应协议。客户端发送一个请求（方法 + URL + 头部 + 可选体），服务器发送一个响应（状态码 + 头部 + 体）。ML模型服务（如TensorFlow Serving、Triton）将模型暴露为HTTP或gRPC端点。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><strong>延迟 vs 带宽</strong>：延迟是一个数据包从源到目标所需的时间（由物理距离和网络跳数决定）。带宽是数据传输速率（每秒字节数）。高带宽、高延迟的连接（卫星互联网）可以传输大量数据，但每个字节需要很长时间才能到达。对于分布式训练，<strong>延迟</strong>对同步屏障（所有GPU必须等待最慢的那个）很重要，而<strong>带宽</strong>对传输大的梯度张量很重要（第6章）。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
<h2 id="_9">虚拟化与容器<a class="headerlink" href="#_9" title="Permanent link">¶</a></h2>
|
||
<ul>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><strong>虚拟化</strong>在单个物理机上运行多个操作系统。<strong>虚拟机监视器</strong>（VMware、KVM、Xen）创建<strong>虚拟机（VM）</strong>，每个虚拟机有自己的虚拟CPU、内存、磁盘和网络接口。每个虚拟机运行一个完整的操作系统（来宾OS），它认为自己拥有专用硬件。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p>VM提供强隔离（一个VM崩溃不影响其他VM）和灵活性（在同一台机器上运行Linux和Windows，在物理主机之间迁移VM）。代价是开销：每个VM运行一个完整的OS内核，消耗内存和CPU来执行与宿主机OS冗余的OS操作。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
<p><img alt="VM在虚拟硬件上运行独立的来宾OS；容器共享宿主机内核，轻量得多" src="../../images/container_vs_vm.svg" /></p>
|
||
<ul>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><strong>容器</strong>（Docker、Podman）提供了一种更轻量的替代方案。容器不是虚拟化整个硬件，而是共享宿主机OS内核，并使用内核特性来隔离进程：</p>
|
||
<ul>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><strong>命名空间</strong>隔离进程可以看到的内容：每个容器拥有自己的进程树视图（PID命名空间）、网络接口（网络命名空间）、文件系统挂载点（挂载命名空间）和主机名（UTS命名空间）。容器内的进程不能看到其他容器中的进程。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><strong>Cgroups</strong>（控制组）限制进程可以使用的内容：CPU时间、内存、磁盘I/O、网络带宽。容器不能消耗超过其cgroup允许的资源，防止一个容器饿死其他容器。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p>容器在毫秒内启动（无需OS启动），使用最小开销（共享内核），并通过<strong>Dockerfile</strong>定义，该文件指定基础镜像、依赖项和命令。这使得它们可复现：<code>docker build</code> 在任何地方产生相同的环境。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p>对于ML，容器解决了"在我机器上能运行"的问题。具有特定版本CUDA、cuDNN、PyTorch和Python的训练环境被打包为容器镜像。任何人都可以在任何机器上复现确切的环境。云训练平台（AWS SageMaker、GCP Vertex AI）在容器中运行训练任务。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><strong>Kubernetes</strong>（K8s）大规模编排容器：它将容器调度到集群中的多台机器上，重启失败的容器，根据负载进行扩缩容，并管理容器之间的网络。大规模ML服务（数千个模型副本处理数百万请求）在Kubernetes上运行。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
<h2 id="_10">安全基础<a class="headerlink" href="#_10" title="Permanent link">¶</a></h2>
|
||
<ul>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p>OS通过多种机制实施安全：</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><strong>权限</strong>：每个文件有一个所有者、一个组和权限位（拥有者、组和其他人的读/写/执行）。进程以启动它的用户的身份（UID）运行，只能访问权限位允许的文件。<strong>root</strong>用户（UID 0）绕过所有权限检查，这就是为什么以root身份运行是危险的。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><strong>权限分离</strong>：进程以所需的最小权限运行。Web服务器不需要root访问权限；它应该以一个受限用户身份运行，该用户只能读取Web文件并绑定到端口80。如果服务器被攻破，攻击者的访问限制在该受限用户能做的范围内。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><strong>沙箱化</strong>：限制进程在文件权限之外能做的事情。<strong>seccomp</strong>（Linux）限制进程可以进行的系统调用。<strong>AppArmor</strong>和<strong>SELinux</strong>定义强制访问控制策略。容器结合了命名空间、cgroups和seccomp进行多层隔离。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p><strong>地址空间布局随机化（ASLR）</strong>：每次程序运行时，随机化堆栈、堆和库的内存位置。这使得攻击者更难利用内存损坏漏洞（缓冲区溢出），因为他们无法预测代码或数据在内存中的位置。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p>安全是一个全系统层面的关注：链条的强度取决于最弱的一环。模型服务系统需要安全的网络通信（TLS/HTTPS）、经过身份验证的API访问（API密钥、OAuth）、输入验证（防止对抗性输入）和隔离执行（具有最小权限的容器）。</p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
<h2 id="colab">编程任务（使用CoLab或笔记本）<a class="headerlink" href="#colab" title="Permanent link">¶</a></h2>
|
||
<ol>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p>探索进程创建。使用Python的 <code>os.fork()</code>（仅Unix）创建一个子进程，并观察父进程和子进程如何从同一点继续执行。
|
||
<div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-0-1" name="__codelineno-0-1" href="#__codelineno-0-1"></a><span class="kn">import</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nn">os</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-0-2" name="__codelineno-0-2" href="#__codelineno-0-2"></a>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-0-3" name="__codelineno-0-3" href="#__codelineno-0-3"></a><span class="n">pid</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fork</span><span class="p">()</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-0-4" name="__codelineno-0-4" href="#__codelineno-0-4"></a>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-0-5" name="__codelineno-0-5" href="#__codelineno-0-5"></a><span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">pid</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">:</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-0-6" name="__codelineno-0-6" href="#__codelineno-0-6"></a> <span class="c1"># 子进程</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-0-7" name="__codelineno-0-7" href="#__codelineno-0-7"></a> <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">f</span><span class="s2">"Child: my PID is </span><span class="si">{</span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getpid</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="si">}</span><span class="s2">, parent PID is </span><span class="si">{</span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getppid</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="si">}</span><span class="s2">"</span><span class="p">)</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-0-8" name="__codelineno-0-8" href="#__codelineno-0-8"></a><span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-0-9" name="__codelineno-0-9" href="#__codelineno-0-9"></a> <span class="c1"># 父进程</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-0-10" name="__codelineno-0-10" href="#__codelineno-0-10"></a> <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">f</span><span class="s2">"Parent: my PID is </span><span class="si">{</span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getpid</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="si">}</span><span class="s2">, child PID is </span><span class="si">{</span><span class="n">pid</span><span class="si">}</span><span class="s2">"</span><span class="p">)</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-0-11" name="__codelineno-0-11" href="#__codelineno-0-11"></a> <span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">wait</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="c1"># 等待子进程结束</span>
|
||
</code></pre></div></p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p>模拟轮转调度。给定一个带有执行时间的进程列表，模拟调度并计算平均等待时间。
|
||
<div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-1-1" name="__codelineno-1-1" href="#__codelineno-1-1"></a><span class="k">def</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nf">round_robin</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">processes</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">quantum</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">):</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-1-2" name="__codelineno-1-2" href="#__codelineno-1-2"></a><span class="w"> </span><span class="sd">"""模拟轮转调度。</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-1-3" name="__codelineno-1-3" href="#__codelineno-1-3"></a><span class="sd"> processes: (name, burst_time) 元组列表。</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-1-4" name="__codelineno-1-4" href="#__codelineno-1-4"></a><span class="sd"> """</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-1-5" name="__codelineno-1-5" href="#__codelineno-1-5"></a> <span class="n">queue</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">burst</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">burst</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">processes</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="c1"># (name, remaining, wait)</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-1-6" name="__codelineno-1-6" href="#__codelineno-1-6"></a> <span class="n">time</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-1-7" name="__codelineno-1-7" href="#__codelineno-1-7"></a> <span class="n">log</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-1-8" name="__codelineno-1-8" href="#__codelineno-1-8"></a>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-1-9" name="__codelineno-1-9" href="#__codelineno-1-9"></a> <span class="k">while</span> <span class="n">queue</span><span class="p">:</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-1-10" name="__codelineno-1-10" href="#__codelineno-1-10"></a> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">remaining</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">waited</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">queue</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pop</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-1-11" name="__codelineno-1-11" href="#__codelineno-1-11"></a> <span class="n">waited</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">time</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">waited</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">processes</span><span class="p">[[</span><span class="n">p</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">p</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">processes</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">index</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)][</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">remaining</span><span class="p">))</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-1-12" name="__codelineno-1-12" href="#__codelineno-1-12"></a> <span class="n">run_time</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">min</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">quantum</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">remaining</span><span class="p">)</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-1-13" name="__codelineno-1-13" href="#__codelineno-1-13"></a> <span class="n">log</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">f</span><span class="s2">" t=</span><span class="si">{</span><span class="n">time</span><span class="si">:</span><span class="s2">3d</span><span class="si">}</span><span class="s2">: </span><span class="si">{</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="si">}</span><span class="s2"> runs for </span><span class="si">{</span><span class="n">run_time</span><span class="si">}</span><span class="s2"> (remaining: </span><span class="si">{</span><span class="n">remaining</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">-</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">run_time</span><span class="si">}</span><span class="s2">)"</span><span class="p">)</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-1-14" name="__codelineno-1-14" href="#__codelineno-1-14"></a> <span class="n">time</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="n">run_time</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-1-15" name="__codelineno-1-15" href="#__codelineno-1-15"></a> <span class="n">remaining</span> <span class="o">-=</span> <span class="n">run_time</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-1-16" name="__codelineno-1-16" href="#__codelineno-1-16"></a>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-1-17" name="__codelineno-1-17" href="#__codelineno-1-17"></a> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">remaining</span> <span class="o">></span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">:</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-1-18" name="__codelineno-1-18" href="#__codelineno-1-18"></a> <span class="n">queue</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">remaining</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">time</span><span class="p">))</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-1-19" name="__codelineno-1-19" href="#__codelineno-1-19"></a> <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-1-20" name="__codelineno-1-20" href="#__codelineno-1-20"></a> <span class="n">log</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">f</span><span class="s2">" t=</span><span class="si">{</span><span class="n">time</span><span class="si">:</span><span class="s2">3d</span><span class="si">}</span><span class="s2">: </span><span class="si">{</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="si">}</span><span class="s2"> DONE (turnaround: </span><span class="si">{</span><span class="n">time</span><span class="si">}</span><span class="s2">)"</span><span class="p">)</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-1-21" name="__codelineno-1-21" href="#__codelineno-1-21"></a>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-1-22" name="__codelineno-1-22" href="#__codelineno-1-22"></a> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">log</span><span class="p">:</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-1-23" name="__codelineno-1-23" href="#__codelineno-1-23"></a> <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">line</span><span class="p">)</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-1-24" name="__codelineno-1-24" href="#__codelineno-1-24"></a>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-1-25" name="__codelineno-1-25" href="#__codelineno-1-25"></a><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">"轮转调度 (quantum=3)："</span><span class="p">)</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-1-26" name="__codelineno-1-26" href="#__codelineno-1-26"></a><span class="n">round_robin</span><span class="p">([(</span><span class="s2">"P1"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">"P2"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">"P3"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">)],</span> <span class="n">quantum</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
|
||
</code></pre></div></p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li>
|
||
<p>模拟LRU页面置换。给定一个页面访问序列和固定数量的帧，统计缺页次数。
|
||
<div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-2-1" name="__codelineno-2-1" href="#__codelineno-2-1"></a><span class="k">def</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nf">lru_page_replacement</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pages</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">n_frames</span><span class="p">):</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-2-2" name="__codelineno-2-2" href="#__codelineno-2-2"></a><span class="w"> </span><span class="sd">"""模拟LRU页面置换。"""</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-2-3" name="__codelineno-2-3" href="#__codelineno-2-3"></a> <span class="n">frames</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-2-4" name="__codelineno-2-4" href="#__codelineno-2-4"></a> <span class="n">faults</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-2-5" name="__codelineno-2-5" href="#__codelineno-2-5"></a>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-2-6" name="__codelineno-2-6" href="#__codelineno-2-6"></a> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">page</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">pages</span><span class="p">:</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-2-7" name="__codelineno-2-7" href="#__codelineno-2-7"></a> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">page</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">frames</span><span class="p">:</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-2-8" name="__codelineno-2-8" href="#__codelineno-2-8"></a> <span class="n">frames</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">remove</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">page</span><span class="p">)</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-2-9" name="__codelineno-2-9" href="#__codelineno-2-9"></a> <span class="n">frames</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">page</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># 移动到最近使用</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-2-10" name="__codelineno-2-10" href="#__codelineno-2-10"></a> <span class="n">status</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">"HIT "</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-2-11" name="__codelineno-2-11" href="#__codelineno-2-11"></a> <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-2-12" name="__codelineno-2-12" href="#__codelineno-2-12"></a> <span class="n">faults</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-2-13" name="__codelineno-2-13" href="#__codelineno-2-13"></a> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">frames</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">>=</span> <span class="n">n_frames</span><span class="p">:</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-2-14" name="__codelineno-2-14" href="#__codelineno-2-14"></a> <span class="n">evicted</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">frames</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pop</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># 移除最近最少使用</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-2-15" name="__codelineno-2-15" href="#__codelineno-2-15"></a> <span class="n">status</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="sa">f</span><span class="s2">"MISS (evict </span><span class="si">{</span><span class="n">evicted</span><span class="si">}</span><span class="s2">)"</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-2-16" name="__codelineno-2-16" href="#__codelineno-2-16"></a> <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-2-17" name="__codelineno-2-17" href="#__codelineno-2-17"></a> <span class="n">status</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">"MISS (cold)"</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-2-18" name="__codelineno-2-18" href="#__codelineno-2-18"></a> <span class="n">frames</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">page</span><span class="p">)</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-2-19" name="__codelineno-2-19" href="#__codelineno-2-19"></a> <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">f</span><span class="s2">" Page </span><span class="si">{</span><span class="n">page</span><span class="si">}</span><span class="s2">: </span><span class="si">{</span><span class="n">status</span><span class="si">}</span><span class="s2"> frames=</span><span class="si">{</span><span class="n">frames</span><span class="si">}</span><span class="s2">"</span><span class="p">)</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-2-20" name="__codelineno-2-20" href="#__codelineno-2-20"></a>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-2-21" name="__codelineno-2-21" href="#__codelineno-2-21"></a> <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">f</span><span class="s2">"</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s2">Total faults: </span><span class="si">{</span><span class="n">faults</span><span class="si">}</span><span class="s2">/</span><span class="si">{</span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pages</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="si">}</span><span class="s2"> (</span><span class="si">{</span><span class="n">faults</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pages</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="si">:</span><span class="s2">.0%</span><span class="si">}</span><span class="s2">)"</span><span class="p">)</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-2-22" name="__codelineno-2-22" href="#__codelineno-2-22"></a>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-2-23" name="__codelineno-2-23" href="#__codelineno-2-23"></a><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">"LRU with 3 frames:"</span><span class="p">)</span>
|
||
<a id="__codelineno-2-24" name="__codelineno-2-24" href="#__codelineno-2-24"></a><span class="n">lru_page_replacement</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">n_frames</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span>
|
||
</code></pre></div></p>
|
||
</li>
|
||
</ol>
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
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